1. Ohm’s Law
In the early part of the 19th century, George Simon Ohm proved by experiment that a precise relationship exists between current, voltage, and resistance. This relationship is called Ohm’s law and is stated as follows:
The current in a circuit is DIRECTLY proportional to the applied voltage and INVERSELY proportional to the circuit resistance. Ohm’s law may be expressed as an equation:
As stated in Ohm’s law, current is inversely proportional to resistance. This means, as the resistance in a circuit increases, the current decreases proportionately.
In the equation
if any two quantities are known, the third one can be determined. Refer to [fig-navy_mod1_00081](B), the schematic of the flashlight. If the battery (BAT) supplies a voltage of 1.5 volts and the lamp (DS1) has a resistance of 5 ohms, then the current in the circuit can be determined. Using this equation and substituting values:
If the flashlight were a two-cell flashlight, we would have twice the voltage, or 3.0 volts, applied to the circuit. Using this voltage in the equation:
You can see that the current has doubled as the voltage has doubled. This demonstrates that the current is directly proportional to the applied voltage.
If the value of resistance of the lamp is doubled, the equation will be:
The current has been reduced to one half of the value of the previous equation, or .3 ampere. This demonstrates that the current is inversely proportional to the resistance. Doubling the value of the resistance of the load reduces circuit current value to one half of its former value.
1.1. Application of Ohm’s Law
By using Ohm’s law, you are able to find the resistance of a circuit, knowing only the voltage and the current in the circuit.
In any equation, if all the variables (parameters) are known except one, that unknown can be found. For example, using Ohm’s law, if current (I) and voltage (E) are known, resistance (R) the only parameter not known, can be determined:
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Basic formula:
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Remove the divisor by multiplying both sides by R:
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Result of step 2: R x I = E
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To get R alone (on one side of the equation) divide both sides by I:
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The basic formula, transposed for R, is:
Refer to Figure 1 where E equals 10 volts and I equals 1 ampere. Solve for R, using the equation just explained.
Given: E = 10 volts I = 1 ampere Solution:
This equation can be used to find the voltage for the circuit shown in Figure 2.
The Ohm’s law equation and its various forms may be obtained readily with the aid of Figure 3. The circle containing E, I, and R is divided into two parts, with E above the line and with I and R below the line. To determine the unknown quantity, first cover that quantity with a finger. The position of the uncovered letters in the circle will indicate the mathematical operation to be performed. For example, to find I, cover I with a finger. The uncovered letters indicate that E is to be divided by R, or
To find the formula for E, cover E with your finger. The result indicates that I is to be multiplied by R, or E = IR. To find the formula for R, cover R. The result indicates that E is to be divided by I, or
You are cautioned not to rely wholly on the use of this diagram when you transpose the Ohm’s law formulas. The diagram should be used to supplement your knowledge of the algebraic method. Algebra is a basic tool in the solution of electrical problems.
1.2. Graphical Analysis of the Basic Circuit
One of the most valuable methods of analyzing a circuit is by constructing a graph. No other method provides a more convenient or more rapid way to observe the characteristics of an electrical device.
The first step in constructing a graph is to obtain a table of data. The information in the table can be obtained by taking measurements on the circuit under examination, or can be obtained theoretically through a series of Ohm’s law computations. The latter method is used here.
Since there are three variables (E, I, and R) to be analyzed, there are three distinct graphs that may be constructed.
To construct any graph of electrical quantities, it is standard practice to vary one quantity in a specified way and note the changes which occur in a second quantity. The quantity which is intentionally varied is called the independent variable and is plotted on the horizontal axis. The horizontal axis is known as the X-AXIS. The second quantity, which varies as a result of changes in the first quantity, is called the dependent variable and is plotted on the vertical, or Y-AXIS. Any other quantities involved are held constant.
For example, in the circuit shown in Figure 4, if the resistance was held at 10 ohms and the voltage was varied, the resulting changes in current could then be graphed. The resistance is the constant, the voltage is the independent variable, and the current is the dependent variable.
Figure 5 shows the graph and a table of values. This table shows R held constant at 10 ohms as E is varied from 0 to 20 volts in 5-volt steps. Through the use of Ohm’s law, you can calculate the value of current for each value of voltage shown in the table. When the table is complete, the information it contains can be used to construct the graph shown in Figure 5. For example, when the voltage applied to the 10-ohm resistor is 10 volts, the current is 1 ampere. These values of current and voltage determine a point on the graph. When all five points have been plotted, a smooth curve is drawn through the points.
Through the use of this curve, the value of current through the resistor can be quickly determined for any value of voltage between 0 and 20 volts.
Since the curve is a straight line, it shows that equal changes of voltage across the resistor produce equal changes in current through the resistor. This fact illustrates an important characteristic of the basic law—the current varies directly with the applied voltage when the resistance is held constant.
When the voltage across a load is held constant, the current depends solely upon the resistance of the load. For example, Figure 6 shows a graph with the voltage held constant at 12 volts. The independent variable is the resistance which is varied from 2 ohms to 12 ohms. The current is the dependent variable. Values for current can be calculated as:
This process can be continued for any value of resistance. You can see that as the resistance is halved, the current is doubled; when the resistance is doubled, the current is halved.
This illustrates another important characteristic of Ohm’s law—current varies inversely with resistance when the applied voltage is held constant.
2. Power
Power, whether electrical or mechanical, pertains to the rate at which work is being done. Work is done whenever a force causes motion. When a mechanical force is used to lift or move a weight, work is done. However, force exerted WITHOUT causing motion, such as the force of a compressed spring acting between two fixed objects, does not constitute work.
Previously, it was shown that voltage is an electrical force, and that voltage forces current to flow in a closed circuit. However, when voltage exists but current does not flow because the circuit is open, no work is done. This is similar to the spring under tension that produced no motion. When voltage causes electrons to move, work is done. The instantaneous RATE at which this work is done is called the electric power rate, and is measured in WATTS.
A total amount of work may be done in different lengths of time. For example, a given number of electrons may be moved from one point to another in 1 second or in 1 hour, depending on the RATE at which they are moved. In both cases, total work done is the same. However, when the work is done in a short time, the wattage, or INSTANTANEOUS POWER RATE, is greater than when the same amount of work is done over a longer period of time.
As stated, the basic unit of power is the watt. Power in watts is equal to the voltage across a circuit multiplied by current through the circuit. This represents the rate at any given instant at which work is being done. The symbol P indicates electrical power. Thus, the basic power formula is P = E x I, where E is voltage and I is current in the circuit. The amount of power changes when either voltage or current, or both voltage and current, are caused to change.
In practice, the ONLY factors that can be changed are voltage and resistance. In explaining the different forms that formulas may take, current is sometimes presented as a quantity that is changed. Remember, if current is changed, it is because either voltage or resistance has been changed.
Figure 7 shows a basic circuit using a source of power that can be varied from 0 to 8 volts and a graph that indicates the relationship between voltage and power.
The resistance of this circuit is 2 ohms; this value does not change. Voltage (E) is increased (by increasing the voltage source), in steps of 1 volt, from 0 volts to 8 volts. By applying Ohm’s law, the current (I) is determined for each step of voltage. For instance, when E is 1 volt, the current is:
Power (P), in watts, is determined by applying the basic power formula:
and P = E x I P = 2 volts x 1 ampere P = 2 watts
You should notice that when the voltage was increased to 2 volts, the power increased from .5 watts to 2 watts or 4 times. When the voltage increased to 3 volts, the power increased to 4.5 watts or 9 times. This shows that if the resistance in a circuit is held constant, the power varies directly with the SQUARE OF THE VOLTAGE.
Another way of proving that power varies as the square of the voltage when resistance is held constant is:
Another important relationship may be seen by studying Figure 8. Thus far, power has been calculated with voltage and current (P = E x I), and with voltage and resistance
Referring to Figure 8, note that power also varies as the square of current just as it does with voltage. Thus, another formula for power, with current and resistance as its factors, is P = I2R. This can be proved by:
Up to this point, four of the most important electrical quantities have been discussed. These are voltage (E), current (I), resistance (R), and power (P). You must understand the relationships which exist among these quantities because they are used throughout your study of electricity. In the preceding paragraphs, P was expressed in terms of alternate pairs of the other three basic quantities E, I, and R. In practice, you should be able to express any one of these quantities in terms of any two of the others.
Figure 9 is a summary of 12 basic formulas you should know. The four quantities E, I, R, and P are at the center of the figure. Adjacent to each quantity are three segments. Note that in each segment, the basic quantity is expressed in terms of two other basic quantities, and no two segments are alike.
For example, the formula wheel in Figure 9 could be used to find the formula to solve the following problem:
A circuit has a voltage source that delivers 6 volts and the circuit uses 3 watts of power. What is the resistance of the load?
Since R is the quantity you have been asked to find, look in the section of the wheel that has R in the center. The segment
contains the quantities you have been given. The formula you would use is
The problem can now be solved.
2.1. Power Rating
Electrical components are often given a power rating. The power rating, in watts, indicates the rate at which the device converts electrical energy into another form of energy, such as light, heat, or motion. An example of such a rating is noted when comparing a 150-watt lamp to a 100-watt lamp. The higher wattage rating of the 150-watt lamp indicates it is capable of converting more electrical energy into light energy than the lamp of the lower rating. Other common examples of devices with power ratings are soldering irons and small electric motors.
In some electrical devices the wattage rating indicates the maximum power the device is designed to use rather than the normal operating power. A 150-watt lamp, for example, uses 150 watts when operated at the specified voltage printed on the bulb. In contrast, a device such as a resistor is not normally given a voltage or a current rating. A resistor is given a power rating in watts and can be operated at any combination of voltage and current as long as the power rating is not exceeded. In most circuits, the actual power used by a resistor is considerably less than the power rating of the resistor because a 50% safety factor is used. For example, if a resistor normally used 2 watts of power, a resistor with a power rating of 3 watts would be used.
Resistors of the same resistance value are available in different wattage values. Carbon resistors, for example, are commonly made in wattage ratings of 1/8, 1/4, 1/2, 1, and 2 watts. The larger the physical size of a carbon resistor the higher the wattage rating. This is true because a larger surface area of material radiates a greater amount of heat more easily.
When resistors with wattage ratings greater than 5 watts are needed, wirewound resistors are used. Wirewound resistors are made in values between 5 and 200 watts. Special types of wirewound resistors are used for power in excess of 200 watts.
As with other electrical quantities, prefixes may be attached to the word watt when expressing very large or very small amounts of power. Some of the more common of these are the kilowatt (1,000 watts), the megawatt (1,000,000 watts), and the milliwatt (1/1,000 of a watt).
2.2. Power Conversion and Efficiency
The term power consumption is common in the electrical field. It is applied to the use of power in the same sense that gasoline consumption is applied to the use of fuel in an automobile.
Another common term is power conversion. Power is used by electrical devices and is converted from one form of energy to another. An electrical motor converts electrical energy to mechanical energy. An electric light bulb converts electrical energy into light energy and an electric range converts electrical energy into heat energy. Power used by electrical devices is measured in energy. This practical unit of electrical energy is equal to 1 watt of power used continuously for 1 hour. The term kilowatt hour (kWh) is used more extensively on a daily basis and is equal to 1,000 watt-hours.
The EFFICIENCY of an electrical device is the ratio of power converted to useful energy divided by the power consumed by the device. This number will always be less than one (1.00) because of the losses in any electrical device. If a device has an efficiency rating of .95, it effectively transforms 95 watts into useful energy for every 100 watts of input power. The other 5 watts are lost to heat, or other losses which cannot be used.
Calculating the amount of power converted by an electrical device is a simple matter. You need to know the length of time the device is operated and the input power or horsepower rating. Horsepower, a unit of work, is often found as a rating on electrical motors. One horsepower is equal to 746 watts. Example: A 3/4-hp motor operates 8 hours a day. How much power is converted by the motor per month? How many kWh does this represent?
Given: t = 8 hrs x 30 days P = 3/4 hp Solution: Convert horsepower to watts P = hp x 746 watts P = 3/4 x 746 watts P = 559 watts
Convert watts to watt-hours
P = work x time P = 559 watts x 8 x 30 P = 134,000 watt-hours per month (NOTE: These figures are rounded to the nearest 1000.)
To convert to kWh
If the motor actually uses 137 kWh per month, what is the efficiency of the motor?
Given: Power converted = 134 kWh per month Power used = 137 kWh per month
Solution: